Its application by scientists Howard Florey, Ernst Chain, Norman Heatley and their colleagues to treat bacterial infection in mice - then humans - highlights the difficulties and successes of animal research. But research involving non-human animals remains poorly understood and highly emotive. Clams and rats helped researchers illuminate the power of the MRI. Total social isolation in monkeys. (1993). & van Eden, C.G. If cons … “AUSTRALIANS SAY NO TO ANIMAL EXPERIMENTS,” rang the headline of a recent media release by the activist group Humane Research Australia, referring to an opinion poll it commissioned in May that found: the majority of Australians are opposed to such an archaic practice and recognise the need to seek more humane and scientifically-valid options. Reductions in neuroscience funding in recent years from research councils as well as the closure of pharma-funded neuroscience institutes in the UK may give the impression that research into neurological deficits, psychological disorders, pharmacological treatment and the underlying basic neuroscience is no longer a priority. ARRIVE guidelines Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments (ARRIVE) guidelines, It has helped develop techniques to recover lost function … An animal model is never going to be 100 per cent representative of human anatomy, physiology, cognition or behaviour. Research involving animals has helped identify the causes of high blood pressure and develop more effective drugs to control the problem. The independent members are key drivers and promoters of animal welfare. My experience of working in an animal lab was positive. Coon, D. (1992). As you can see, people and animals are biologically similar, having the same set of organs, central nervous system and bloodstream, which is why both are affected by virtually the same health conditions and diseases. In F. Boller & J. Grafman (Eds.) Advances in surgeries and treatments such as kidney dialysis and heart transplant were also perfected with the use of animals. Meet the author‘I came into research with rodents through my PhD in neuroscience. Research in clinical psychology also uses human participants from clinical populations for the most part. For instance, the complex anatomical organisation of the prefrontal cortex (Bedwell et al., 2014, 2015) and the topographic ordering of cortical and subcortical connections (Berendse et al., 1992; Hoover & Vertes, 2011; Kondo & Witter, 2014) could not have been observed in such detail without the use of neuroanatomical tract tracing in animals. Studies in non-human animals have led to countless others treatments. All research involving animals occurs inside a legal and regulatory framework. Easier to house and care for than rodents. Animals are used in research or experimentation in place of human subjects for various reasons.. Conclusion It is evident that there are and will always be drawbacks to neuroscience and psychology research carried out and developed from studies using animal models. Many studies of neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, and neurotransmitter function require the use of invasive techniques that are unethical to carry out with humans, making animal models a necessity in this field. The Importance of Animals in Research • Society of Toxicology • Research involving laboratory animals is necessary to ensure and enhance human and animal health and protection of the environment. I also believe that the anatomical knowledge gained from these studies will form the basis for improved understanding of the prefrontal cortex from a psychological perspective, making animal models important for advancements in psychology as well. The topology of connections between rat prefrontal, motor and sensory cortices. Introduction to psychology: The science of behaviour (4th edn). Research Publications - Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disease, 27 (1 vol. Mammals (pp.443–450). Animals are used in research or experimentation in place of human subjects for various reasons.. APC Animal Procedures Committee (now replaced by the ASC, see below). Animals are needed in research to develop drugs and medical procedures to treat diseases. (2014). Without the knowledge gained from work with animals in neuroscience labs on the underlying structure of complex functions, we can never hope to fully understand the social, behavioural and cognitive aspects of the human brain. A main weakness of animal studies is that animals have a different physiology to humans. A condition is that the institution forms an Animal Care and Ethics Committee. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience. In my opinion, animal models continue to provide an important contribution to many areas of brain science. Behavioural Brain Research, 146(1-2), 3–17.Uylings, H.B. At the extremes, activists invade laboratories, threaten researchers and firebomb their homes and cars. (1988). (image 2) Expensive and extensive. States have their own, but largely similar, acts and regulations. Humanized mice for immune system investigation: Progress, promise and challenges Nature Reviews Immunology, 12(11), 786–798.Uylings, H.B., Groenewegen, H.J. (1990). Such models help identify disease pathways and allow assessment of new therapies. Comparing the prefrontal cortex of rats and primates: Insights from electrophysiology. I was always confident in the value of the work I was carrying out and the high standards of animal care in my studies. Handbook of neuropsychology: Vol. Considering these facts, animals are being accepted as appropriate research subjects. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 6, 18–30.Goldman-Rakic, P.S. Smallpox has been eradicated from the earth thanks to knowledge gained from studies on animals. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 106, 129–155.Shultz, L.D., Brehm, M.A., Garcia-Martinez, J.V. The idea that research funded via these agencies lacks significance and scientific excellence is absurd. It is clear that some medical discoveries have been possible without the use of animals: for instance, Fleming discovered penicillin without animal experiments. Research institutions and their researchers are accredited, licensed, and authorised to conduct animal research. Often the ante is raised and science without clear translation to a human condition is portrayed as a flagrant waste of valuable resources. Neurotoxicity Research, 14, 249–262.Semendeferi, K., Armstrong, E., Schleicher, A. et al. Everyone I know working on animal experiments is well trained and the animals are very well cared for. Observations on child development. These committees include researchers themselves, but also independent members such as lay members, representatives from animal welfare groups, and veterinarians. Further research across all aspects of brain science is necessary. Animals themselves benefit from the results of animal testing. Animal research only takes place after careful evaluation and within a framework of robust controls. Ethics of Using animals in Research 1. Vaccines for rabies, canine parvovirus, distemper, and feline leukemia virus have kept many animals from contracting these fatal diseases. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Rose, J.E. Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre der Grosshirnrinde  [Comparative localisation studies in the cerebral cortex]. Some controversy, however, comes with the study of the mammalian brain in psychology and neuroscience. They ought to be met and refuted. Much of what is known about the anatomy and physiology of humans, as well as other animals, has come from animal research in various forms. They open their paper with the extraordinary statement: 'Clinicians and the public often consider it axiomatic that animal research has contributed to the treatment of human disease, yet little evidence is available to support this view'. From preventing polio to finding cures for cancer patients, animal research has saved countless lives. This may lead many psychologists to consider the use of animals in scientific research as irrelevant to them. More recent studies confirmed similarities in both OMPFC and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex between primates and rats (Goldman-Rakic, 1988; Uylings & Van Eden, 1990). These interventions now improve the quality of life of thousands of patients who would otherwise have faced institutionalisation. There are alternatives in some cases, for example human neuronal cells can be cultured. These homologies not only make mammalian models relevant to humans, they also make the development of increasingly complex models possible, creating the possibility of understanding complex cognitive processes. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 522(4), 772–793.Melkus, M.W., Estes, J.D., Padgett-Thomas, A. et al. Proceedings of the  National Academies of Science of the United States of America, 54(1), 90–97. Harlow, H.F. & Suomi, S.J. & Kolb, B. Prior to this I had always had an awareness and interest in the ethical treatment of animals. The knowledge from basic research was central to advancement but appeared to add little to solving the pressing medical problems of the day. Analysing gene function is an area in which the use of GM animals is likely to rise significantly, because by modifying a gene, its various roles in different functional systems of the (1951). Critics of animal research, and advocates of its abolition, focus heavily on failures in clinical translation and otherwise successful efforts in basic but incremental research. Academic Press. However, there is no dispute that rats lack the granular prefrontal cortex found in primates, thought to be a product of evolution. 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Advances in surgeries and treatments such as kidney dialysis and heart transplant were also perfected with the use of animals. Gavan McNally receives funding from The Australian Research Council and The National Health and Medical Research Council. In many cases, treatments have been developed specifically for animals. The study of The brain is a complex organ comprising a combination of multiple systems and processes. Pacific Grove, CA. They ensure regulatory compliance and continual improvement in animal welfare. Animal studies are more properly known as “research involving non-human participants” and they play an important role in Psychology: from Pavlov’s dogs and Skinner’s rats to more recent studies involving the language abilities of apes, animals feature heavily in all the main approaches, but especially the Learning Approach. This is one organ that does differ in some aspects, particularly in terms of cortical volume, quite substantially between species. When starting out in the project I was faced with many accounts of scientists in animal testing who faced problems with antivivisection activists. The first is the possibility of creating “humanised” animals for use in biomedical research. During the tests, it is highly possible that animals would experience inhumane ... 2. rodents). (1998). 9, 80.Berendse, H.W., Galis-de Graaf, Y. Animals may be too big for their legs, have shorter life spans, and there are low survival rates for transgenic aimals. (image 1.1 and 1.2) Mutagenesis and function disorders. Understanding how the body works and how diseases progress, and finding cures, vaccines or treatments, can take many years of painstaking work using a wide range of research techniques. Progress in Brain Research, 85, 31–62.Wortman, C.B. Animals in research: do the costs outweigh the benefits. Projections of the medial orbital and ventral orbital cortex in the rat. (2014). Animals are our allies in the war against cancer and other deadly diseases. Introduction to psychology (3rd edn). They read and evaluate applications, force researchers to clearly justify the need for animal use, and frequently suggest refinements to reduce impact. Ethics committees. (1965). (I use “failure” cautiously, as one scientist’s noise is another’s signal.). Despite these, animal studies have historically provided great advances in our knowledge of the brain and continue to provide us with important information in developing a greater understanding of such a complex organ. Despite this, there are many common characteristics between all mammalian brains (e.g. • In the absence of human data, research with experimental animals is the most reliable means of detecting important toxic properties By Prof. Dr. Rabie Hassan Fayed Animal Behaviour & Management Faculty of Vet. Without these experiments, work that followed in the field of development may have differed; however, it is not clear whether such observational research truly benefited from being carried out on primates. If humans are so much more advanced than other animals, especially in abilities such as executive function, then it is understandable why many would question the point of psychology experiments on much less advanced animals like rodents. Still further checks. (pp.17–58). Copyright © 2010–2021, The Conversation US, Inc. National Health and Medical Research Council, Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1979, Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Regulation 2012, Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1986, Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Regulations 2008. Sign in Or Create an account, Not a member? These are conducted by dedicated and professional staff. The use of animals in research is prevalent because they share at least 200 common illnesses and diseases with humans. For instance, aversion therapy, desensitisation and extinction therapies, token economies and systematic reinforcement were all developed from studying animal behaviours and the pioneering work of animal researchers like Pavlov, Skinner and Thorndike. Write an article and join a growing community of more than 127,100 academics and researchers from 4,024 institutions. Based on the above evidence, it is reasonable to conclude that although the human brain, even in the highly complex prefrontal cortex, is more complex than those of any laboratory animal model in many ways, there are a substantial number of homologies between species. The experimenters must show that there is no suitable alternative way to gain the same quality of findings, and justify the benefits of proposed research compared with the costs to the animals. Therefore, even though it may be indirect, I consider animal studies to hold a significant place in contemporary psychology. Age-related neurodegenerative diseases are largely limited to humans and rarely occur spontaneously in animals. There are other independent checks in this system. For instance, Herceptin was developed in mouse models and has greatly improved the survival rate in breast cancer. It is clear that rats possess much of the prefrontal cortex properties found in primates and humans. Vaccines tested on animals have saved millions of animals that would otherwise have died from rabies, distemper, feline leukemia, infectious hepatitis virus, tetanus, anthrax, and canine parvo virus. UK legislation requires that researchers refine their procedures to keep Even though there are many advantages of animal research, there are also several problems related to this concept. Animals in neuroscience and neuropsychologyIn neuroscience, our current knowledge of homeostasis, intrinsic and extrinsic reward, primary and secondary reinforcement and the effects of reinforcement on persistence all derive significantly from animal research. 1. A large body of our present understanding of the physiological and neurophysiological bases of hunger, thirst and sexual motivation has been developed through experiments involving the use of animals. Species X differs from humans on variable Y; hence all work in species X is “scientifically invalid” and a “waste of resources”. (1959). My research using animal models has been on the anatomical connectivity of the prefrontal cortex. The Use of Whole Animals Versus Isolated Organs or Cell Culture in Research H. Claire Murphy Creighton University Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/tnas Part of the Life Sciences Commons Murphy, H. Claire, "The Use of Whole Animals Versus Isolated Organs or Cell Culture in Research" (1991). Edinburgh: Paul Harris.Brodmann, K. (1909). The HPV vaccine was developed with rabbits. They extend lifespans. Next, basic research is equated with “morbid curiosity”. (2007). Pets, livestock, and animals in zoos live longer, more comfortable, and healthier lives as a result of animal research. Due to its invasive nature, this kind of work must be carried out on animals. However, it is worth noting that human imaging does not provide enough fine-scale detail in some instances, such as identifying the anatomical structure of specific pathways, which requires neuroanatomical tracing and microscopic analysis of histological samples (Bedwell et al., 2014, 2015). In neuropsychology non-invasive fMRI, EEG and TMS methodologies enable researchers to investigate functional organisation, localisation of function and cortical activity in great detail. As such, because the suffering caused to animals is so high, there is no justification for the benefits to humans. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 8, 177.Bedwell, S.A., Billett, E.E., Crofts, J.J. et al. research and translate this into benefits for society. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 316(3), 314–347.Bliss, M. (1983). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.Freud, A. Animal research has helped us to make life-changing discoveries, from new vaccines and medicines to transplant procedures, anaesthetics and blood transfusions. Find out about becoming a member or subscriber. Social learning theory. I never experienced an animal suffering either as part of an experiment or while being kept in the facility. A well-known example is Harlow’s work on emotional development and maternal deprivation in rhesus monkeys (Harlow et al., 1965; Harlow & Suomi, 1971). Researchers are required to demonstrate that consideration has been given to replacing animals where possible, reducing the number of animals and refining methodology to minimise suffering. 9. Discuss the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Use of Animals for psychological Research. basic cytoarchitecture and structure and neuronal physiology). Animal testing is a quite controversial topic. I think my care for animals made me a good candidate to work with animals in the lab. The institution, its animal ethics committee and researchers are subject to inspections (such as the Animal Research Review Panel in NSW and Bureau of Animal Welfare in Victoria). The importance and reliance on animal models may change in the future along with the development of more advanced technologies, but for the time being experiments involving animals are vital for progression in our understanding of the brain and the continued development of neurological and psychological treatments. New York: McGraw-Hill. Animals in behavioural and social experimentsResearch into psychological development has relied greatly upon the use of animals, particularly primates. However, the complexity of a living animal and all of its interconnected systems cannot be fully emulated in culture. The majority of animal use in psychology is in research, and this is covered by the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986. Despite the reduction in available funding, the fact remains that we still have a long way to go in understanding the human brain, from biological, behavioural, clinical and social perspectives alike. that function in essentially the same way with the help of a bloodstream and central nervous system. (1992). If research involves native species or fieldwork, then additional levels of independent assessment and approval (such as NSW Office for Environment and Heritage) are required. These funds are exceptionally hard-won. Psychology (2nd edn). 3. Further details of the BPS guidelines can be found at tinyurl.com/bpsanimals. Do all mammals have prefrontal cortex? Social recovery by isolation-reared monkeys. Most research requires funds, so researchers seek funding from independent agencies such as the National Health and Medical Research Council and the Australian Research Council. Already a member? Annual Review of Neuroscience, 11, 137–156.Groenewegen, H.J. Not lost in translation. Many of the major researchers in sensation and perception – Hubel, Wiesel, Lettvin, Jacobs, Newsome, Sperry, Bekesy, DeValois, Melzack, and more – used animal subjects in their groundbreaking research. In fact, mice share more than 98% DNA with us! (2006). & Loftus, E.F. (1992) Psychology (4th edn). Nature Medicine 12(11), 1316–1322.Petrides, M. & Pandya, D.N. Animals in research: do the costs outweigh the benefits? It is evident that the use of animals does not play an important, or arguably even relevant, role in most aspects of contemporary human social, behavioural or cognitive psychology. millions of lives have been saved or improved as a result. The prefrontal cortex is a specific region thought to be much more developed in humans compared with other animals, so it is understandable that the usefulness of animal models in experiments involving the prefrontal cortex is sometimes questioned. animals can be used in medical research to create models of human disease. Qualitative and quantitative comparison of the prefrontal cortex in rat and in primates, including humans. ), 210–232.Russell, W.M.S. Comparative architectonic analysis of the human and the macaque frontal cortex. These acts are illegal. However, what is often unclear is whether the same level of knowledge could have been reached from different, non-invasive methodologies, perhaps without the use of animals at all. Box text: Guidelines on the use of animals in researchIt is worth noting that in the UK the Home Office licensing procedure is very strict, and experimenters are required to consistently follow the 3 Rs (reduction, refinement, replacement: see Russell & Burch, 1959). Topography of cognition: Parallel distributed networks in primate association cortex. & Greiner, D.L. This is in addition to a large body of animal research carried out to increase our knowledge and understanding of various brain regions and networks.